rename for clarity.

the explicit screen buffer has been obsoleted by cursor usage :-)

README.md

@@ -51,11 +51,10 @@ The current control scheme adheres to vim-like keybindings and is modal.
 
 ### Todo
 
-  - [ ] Game logic
+  - [x] Game logic
     - [x] Validate Sudokus
     - [x] Generate Sudokus
       - [x] Difficulties to choose
-    - [ ] Undo functionality
   
   
   - [x] Basic UI
@@ -70,12 +69,13 @@ The current control scheme adheres to vim-like keybindings and is modal.
         - [x] Preselect numbers
         - [x] Edit Mode to (re)place numbers
         - [x] Markup Mode to mark where numbers could go
+          - [x] Autoremove marks after placing number in edit mode
         - [x] Go Mode to move to blocks 1-9
         - [x] Toggle Number/Mark with Space
-        - [ ] Undo/Redo stack
-      - [ ] Colored UI
-        - [ ] Hightlight preselected numbers
-        - [ ] Hightlight preselected markups
+        - [x] Undo/Redo stack
+      - [x] Colored UI
+        - [x] Hightlight preselected numbers
+        - [x] Hightlight preselected markups
       - [x] Scoreboard
         - [x] Live timer
         - [x] Mode indicator

src/main.rs

@@ -4,19 +4,16 @@ use crossterm::event::{poll, read, Event::*, KeyCode::*};
 extern crate rand;
 
 mod state;
-use state::*;
-
 mod sudoku;
-use sudoku::*;
-
 mod ui;
-use ui::*;
+use {state::*, sudoku::*, ui::*};
 
 use std::{io, time::Duration};
 
 fn main() {
-    let mut screen = Screen::init(io::stdout());
+    let mut screen = Ui::init(io::stdout());
     let mut state = State::init(Difficulty::Mid);
+    screen.draw_static_elements().or_crash();
 
     loop {
         if poll(Duration::from_millis(250)).unwrap_or(false) {
@@ -49,7 +46,7 @@ fn main() {
                             state.toggle_current_cell();
                             state.enter_next_mode();
                             if is_solution(&state.board) {
-                                screen.deinit();
+                                screen.deinit().or_crash();
                                 println!("+------------+");
                                 println!("| You Win :) |");
                                 println!("+------------+");
@@ -80,8 +77,11 @@ fn main() {
                         _ => state.preselect_num(num as u8 - b'0'),
                     },
 
+                    Char('u') | Char('U') => state.undo(),
+                    Char('r') | Char('R') => state.redo(),
+
                     Char('q') | Char('Q') => {
-                        screen.deinit();
+                        screen.deinit().or_crash();
                         break;
                     }
 
@@ -91,13 +91,7 @@ fn main() {
             }
         }
 
-        screen.update_dimensions()
-            .unwrap_or_else(|_| std::process::exit(1));
-
-        screen.render(&state);
-
-        screen.draw(state.cur_row, state.cur_col)
-            .unwrap_or_else(|_| std::process::exit(1));
+        screen.draw(&state).or_crash();
     }
 }
 

src/state.rs

@@ -3,62 +3,57 @@ use crate::Dir::*;
 
 use std::time;
 
-pub enum Dir {
-    Up,
-    Down,
-    Left,
-    Right,
-    FarUp,
-    FarDown,
-    FarLeft,
-    FarRight,
-}
-
-#[derive(Default, PartialEq, Clone, Copy)]
-pub enum Mode {
-    #[default]
-    Edit,
-    Markup,
-    Go,
-}
-
+/// the entire game logic state
 pub struct State {
     pub board: Board,
-    pub difficulty: Difficulty,
     pub modifiable: [[bool; 9]; 9],
     pub markups: [[[bool; 9]; 9]; 9],
-    pub start_time: time::Instant,
-    pub mode: Mode,
-    pub next_mode: Mode,
+
     pub preselection: u8,
     pub cur_row: usize,
     pub cur_col: usize,
+
+    pub mode: Mode,
+    pub next_mode: Mode,
+
+    pub difficulty: Difficulty,
+    pub start_time: time::Instant,
+
+    pub undo_stack: Vec<UndoStep>,
+    pub redo_stack: Vec<UndoStep>,
 }
 
 impl State {
+    /// returns a new `State` with a randomly generated
+    /// sudoku `Board` of the provided `Difficulty`
     pub fn init(difficulty: Difficulty) -> Self {
         let board = generate_sudoku(difficulty);
-        let modifiable = State::get_modifiables(board);
+        let modifiable = State::init_modifiables(board);
 
         Self {
             board,
-            difficulty,
             modifiable,
             markups: [[[false; 9]; 9]; 9],
-            start_time: time::Instant::now(),
-            mode: Mode::default(),
-            next_mode: Mode::default(),
+
             preselection: 1,
             cur_row: 4,
             cur_col: 4,
+
+            mode: Mode::default(),
+            next_mode: Mode::default(),
+
+            difficulty,
+            start_time: time::Instant::now(),
+
+            undo_stack: Vec::with_capacity(160),
+            redo_stack: Vec::with_capacity(80),
         }
     }
 
-    fn get_time(&self) -> time::Duration {
-        time::Instant::now() - self.start_time
-    }
-
-    fn get_modifiables(board: Board) -> [[bool; 9]; 9] {
+    /// returns a boolean mask of the board, indicating which cells
+    /// can be modified by the user and which are part of the puzzle constraints.
+    /// makes only cells that are initialized with the value 0 modifiable
+    fn init_modifiables(board: Board) -> [[bool; 9]; 9] {
         let mut modifiable = [[false; 9]; 9];
         for (board_row, modifiable_row) in board.iter().zip(modifiable.iter_mut()) {
             for (board_cell, modifiable_flag) in board_row.iter().zip(modifiable_row.iter_mut()) {
@@ -74,6 +69,8 @@ impl State {
         self.modifiable[self.cur_row][self.cur_col]
     }
 
+    /// returns a mutable reference to the number
+    /// contained in the current cell.
     pub fn current_cell(&mut self) -> &mut u8 {
         &mut self.board[self.cur_row][self.cur_col]
     }
@@ -102,10 +99,11 @@ impl State {
 
     pub fn toggle_current_cell(&mut self) {
         if self.current_cell_is_modifiable() {
-            *self.current_cell() = if *self.current_cell() == self.preselection {
-                0
+            if *self.current_cell() == self.preselection {
+                self.delete_current_cell();
             } else {
-                self.preselection
+                *self.current_cell() = self.preselection;
+                self.delete_colliding_marks(self.preselection, self.cur_row, self.cur_col);
             }
         }
     }
@@ -113,9 +111,93 @@ impl State {
     pub fn delete_current_cell(&mut self) {
         if self.current_cell_is_modifiable() {
             *self.current_cell() = 0;
+
+            self.push_to_undo_stack(UndoStep::Replace(
+                self.preselection,
+                (self.cur_row as u8, self.cur_col as u8),
+            ));
         }
     }
 
+    /// deletes all marks of `num` in it's row, column and block.
+    /// used to automatically remove marks when placing a number that
+    /// invalidates those marks.
+    pub fn delete_colliding_marks(&mut self, num: u8, row: usize, col: usize) {
+        let mut deleted = [None; 27];
+        let mut pos = 0;
+
+        for i in 0..9 {
+            if self.markups[i][col][num as usize - 1] {
+                deleted[pos] = Some((i as u8, col as u8));
+                pos += 1;
+            }
+            if self.markups[row][i][num as usize - 1] {
+                deleted[pos] = Some((row as u8, i as u8));
+                pos += 1;
+            }
+            if self.markups[row / 3 * 3 + i / 3][col / 3 * 3 + i % 3][num as usize - 1] {
+                deleted[pos] = Some((
+                    row as u8 / 3 * 3 + i as u8 / 3,
+                    col as u8 / 3 * 3 + i as u8 % 3,
+                ));
+                pos += 1;
+            }
+
+            self.markups[i][col][num as usize - 1] = false;
+            self.markups[row][i][num as usize - 1] = false;
+            self.markups[row / 3 * 3 + i / 3][col / 3 * 3 + i % 3][num as usize - 1] = false;
+        }
+
+        self.push_to_undo_stack(UndoStep::Unplace(
+            self.preselection,
+            (row as u8, col as u8),
+            deleted,
+        ));
+    }
+
+    pub fn toggle_current_mark(&mut self) {
+        if self.markups[self.cur_row][self.cur_col][self.preselection as usize - 1] {
+            self.delete_current_mark();
+        } else {
+            self.set_current_mark();
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn delete_current_mark(&mut self) {
+        if *self.current_cell() != 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        self.markups[self.cur_row][self.cur_col][self.preselection as usize - 1] = false;
+
+        self.push_to_undo_stack(UndoStep::Remark(
+            self.preselection,
+            (self.cur_row as u8, self.cur_col as u8),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_current_mark(&mut self) {
+        if *self.current_cell() != 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        self.markups[self.cur_row][self.cur_col][self.preselection as usize - 1] = true;
+
+        self.push_to_undo_stack(UndoStep::Unmark(
+            self.preselection,
+            (self.cur_row as u8, self.cur_col as u8),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    pub fn move_cursor_to(&mut self, row: usize, col: usize) {
+        assert!(
+            row < 9 && col < 9,
+            "[!] Error: State::go_to: Can't move to row/column out of bounds."
+        );
+        self.cur_row = row;
+        self.cur_col = col;
+    }
+
     pub fn enter_mode(&mut self, mode: Mode) {
         match mode {
             Mode::Go => {
@@ -128,6 +210,8 @@ impl State {
         self.next_mode = self.mode;
     }
 
+    /// enter a mode until one action has been taken,
+    /// then returning to the previous mode
     pub fn enter_mode_once(&mut self, mode: Mode) {
         if self.mode != mode {
             self.next_mode = self.mode;
@@ -139,24 +223,12 @@ impl State {
         self.mode = self.next_mode;
     }
 
-    pub fn move_cursor_to(&mut self, row: usize, col: usize) {
-        assert!(
-            row < 9 && col < 9,
-            "[-] Error: State::go_to: Can't move to row/column out of bounds."
-        );
-        self.cur_row = row;
-        self.cur_col = col;
+    fn get_elapsed_time(&self) -> time::Duration {
+        time::Instant::now() - self.start_time
     }
 
-    pub fn toggle_current_mark(&mut self) {
-        self.markups[self.cur_row][self.cur_col][self.preselection as usize] ^= true;
-    }
-
-    pub fn delete_current_mark(&mut self) {
-        self.markups[self.cur_row][self.cur_col][self.preselection as usize] = false;
-    }
-
-    pub fn get_completion_chars(&self) -> [char; 2] {
+    /// returns number of filled cells
+    pub fn get_completion_string(&self) -> String {
         let mut count = 0;
         for row in self.board {
             for cell in row {
@@ -166,9 +238,12 @@ impl State {
             }
         }
         let to_char = |x| (x + b'0') as char;
-        [to_char(count / 10), to_char(count % 10)]
+        [to_char(count / 10), to_char(count % 10)].iter().collect()
     }
 
+    /// returns how many of the 9 final occurences of the
+    /// preselected number have been found.
+    /// returns `'!'` if the user erroneously placed more than 9.
     pub fn get_preselection_completion_char(&self) -> char {
         let count = self
             .board
@@ -176,40 +251,147 @@ impl State {
             .flatten()
             .filter(|&cell| cell == self.preselection)
             .count();
-        (count.min(9) as u8 + b'0') as char
-    }
-
-    pub fn get_difficulty_chars(&self) -> [char; 5] {
-        match self.difficulty {
-            Difficulty::Easy => [' ', 'E', 'a', 's', 'y'],
-            Difficulty::Mid => [' ', 'M', 'i', 'd', ' '],
-            Difficulty::Hard => [' ', 'H', 'a', 'r', 'd'],
-            Difficulty::Expert => ['E', 'x', 'p', 'r', 't'],
-            Difficulty::Custom(x) => [
-                'C',
-                '(',
-                (x as u8 / 10 + b'0') as char,
-                (x as u8 % 10 + b'0') as char,
-                ')',
-            ],
+        match count {
+            10.. => '!',
+            _ => (count as u8 + b'0') as char,
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn get_timer_chars(&self) -> [char; 5] {
-        let mut secs = self.get_time().as_secs();
-        let mut chars = [':'; 5];
-        let to_char = |x: u64| (x as u8 + b'0') as char;
-        chars[0] = to_char(secs / 600);
-        secs %= 600;
-        chars[1] = to_char(secs / 60);
-        secs %= 60;
-        chars[3] = to_char(secs / 10);
-        secs %= 10;
-        chars[4] = to_char(secs);
-        chars
+    /// returns the difficulty string used on the ingame scoreboard.
+    /// if you want the complete difficulty names use `Difficulty::to_string()`
+    pub fn get_difficulty_string(&self) -> String {
+        match self.difficulty {
+            Difficulty::Easy => String::from("Easy "),
+            Difficulty::Mid => String::from(" Mid "),
+            Difficulty::Hard => String::from("Hard "),
+            Difficulty::Expert => String::from("Exprt"),
+            Difficulty::Custom(x) => format!("C({:02})", x),
+        }
     }
 
+    /// returns (mins, secs) as a pair of strings
+    /// both are zero-padded to a width of 2 characters
+    pub fn get_timer_strings(&self) -> (String, String) {
+        let mut n = self.get_elapsed_time().as_secs();
+
+        let mut mins = String::with_capacity(2);
+        let mut secs = String::with_capacity(2);
+
+        let to_char = |x: u64| (x as u8 + b'0') as char;
+
+        mins.push(to_char(n / 600));
+        n %= 600;
+        mins.push(to_char(n / 60));
+        n %= 60;
+
+        secs.push(to_char(n / 10));
+        n %= 10;
+        secs.push(to_char(n));
+
+        (mins, secs)
+    }
+
+    /// returns timer as string in `mm:ss` format
     pub fn get_timer_string(&self) -> String {
-        self.get_timer_chars().iter().collect()
+        let (mins, secs) = self.get_timer_strings();
+        let mut timer = String::with_capacity(5);
+        timer.push_str(&mins);
+        timer.push(':');
+        timer.push_str(&secs);
+        timer
+    }
+
+    /// undo an action that has been taken
+    pub fn undo(&mut self) {
+        use UndoStep::*;
+
+        if let Some(undo_step) = self.undo_stack.pop() {
+            self.redo_stack.push(undo_step);
+            match undo_step {
+                Unplace(num, (row, col), deleted_marks) => {
+                    self.board[row as usize][col as usize] = 0;
+                    for (r, c) in deleted_marks.iter().take_while(|x| x.is_some()).flatten() {
+                        self.markups[*r as usize][*c as usize][num as usize - 1] = true;
+                    }
+                }
+                Replace(num, (row, col)) => {
+                    self.board[row as usize][col as usize] = num;
+                }
+                Remark(num, (row, col)) => {
+                    self.markups[row as usize][col as usize][num as usize - 1] = true;
+                }
+                Unmark(num, (row, col)) => {
+                    self.markups[row as usize][col as usize][num as usize - 1] = false;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// redo an action if one was taken and undone.
+    pub fn redo(&mut self) {
+        use UndoStep::*;
+
+        if let Some(redo_step) = self.redo_stack.pop() {
+            self.undo_stack.push(redo_step);
+            match redo_step {
+                Unplace(num, (row, col), deleted_marks) => {
+                    self.board[row as usize][col as usize] = num;
+                    for (r, c) in deleted_marks.iter().take_while(|x| x.is_some()).flatten() {
+                        self.markups[*r as usize][*c as usize][num as usize - 1] = false;
+                    }
+                }
+                Replace(_, (row, col)) => {
+                    self.board[row as usize][col as usize] = 0;
+                }
+                Remark(num, (row, col)) => {
+                    self.markups[row as usize][col as usize][num as usize - 1] = false;
+                }
+                Unmark(num, (row, col)) => {
+                    self.markups[row as usize][col as usize][num as usize - 1] = true;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// pushes a move done by the player to the undo stack
+    /// this additionally invalidates the redo stack
+    pub fn push_to_undo_stack(&mut self, undo_step: UndoStep) {
+        self.undo_stack.push(undo_step);
+        self.redo_stack.clear();
     }
 }
+
+pub enum Dir {
+    Up,
+    Down,
+    Left,
+    Right,
+    FarUp,
+    FarDown,
+    FarLeft,
+    FarRight,
+}
+
+#[derive(Default, PartialEq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub enum Mode {
+    #[default]
+    Edit,
+    Markup,
+    Go,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub enum UndoStep {
+    /// unplace num at (row, col) and re-mark
+    /// (row, col) if there were removed marks
+    Unplace(u8, (u8, u8), [Option<(u8, u8)>; 27]),
+
+    /// re-place num at (row, col)
+    Replace(u8, (u8, u8)),
+
+    /// unmark num at (row, col)
+    Unmark(u8, (u8, u8)),
+
+    /// re-mark num at (row, col)
+    Remark(u8, (u8, u8)),
+}

src/sudoku/generator.rs

@@ -1,6 +1,3 @@
-// TODO: remove when done
-#![cfg_attr(debug_assertions, allow(unused))]
-
 use crate::generator::Difficulty::*;
 use crate::rand::{seq::SliceRandom, thread_rng};
 use crate::sudoku::{Board, New};
@@ -9,6 +6,7 @@ use std::fmt;
 
 /// categories of difficulty, indicating how many
 /// empty spaces will be on a sudoku board.
+/// (see `Difficulty::removal_count()` for values)
 #[allow(unused)]
 #[derive(Default, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub enum Difficulty {
@@ -25,10 +23,10 @@ impl Difficulty {
     /// sudoku board of the given `Difficulty`
     pub fn removal_count(&self) -> usize {
         match self {
-            Easy => 35,
-            Mid => 45,
-            Hard => 52,
-            Expert => 62,
+            Easy => 31,
+            Mid => 39,
+            Hard => 49,
+            Expert => 61,
             Custom(x) => *x,
         }
     }
@@ -47,6 +45,8 @@ impl fmt::Display for Difficulty {
 }
 
 /// generate a random, unsolved sudoku board with a given `Difficulty`.
+/// solves a empty sudoku with random cell order and then removes
+/// some number of cells depending on the difficulty.
 pub fn generate_sudoku(difficulty: Difficulty) -> Board {
     let mut board = Board::new();
 
@@ -65,13 +65,15 @@ pub fn generate_sudoku(difficulty: Difficulty) -> Board {
     board
 }
 
+/// solves a sudoku, randomizing which empty cell of equal
+/// mrv to choose next.
+/// this is used to generate random, fully solvable sudokus.
+///
+/// NOTE: this does not guarantee a single-solution sudoku.
+///
 /// TODO: currently empty cells needs to be recreated
 ///       on each recursive call, and are randomized anew
 ///       each time, which is an unnecessary overhead.
-///
-/// solves a sudoku, randomizing which empty cell of equal
-/// mrv () to choose next.
-/// this is used to generate random, fully solvable sudokus.
 fn solve_random(board: &mut Board) -> Result<(), ()> {
     let mut empty_cells: Vec<(usize, usize)> = Vec::new();
 

src/sudoku/mod.rs

@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ trait New {
 }
 
 impl New for Board {
+    /// return an empty `Board`
     fn new() -> Self {
         [[0u8; 9]; 9]
     }

src/sudoku/validator.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,6 @@
-// TODO: remove when done
-#![cfg_attr(debug_assertions, allow(unused))]
-
 use crate::sudoku::Board;
 
+/// returns true if the provided sudoku `Board` is in a solved state
 pub fn is_solution(sudoku: &Board) -> bool {
     for i in 0..9 {
         let mut row_set = 0u16;

src/ui.rs

@@ -1,65 +1,95 @@
 use crate::state::*;
+
+use std::cmp::Ordering::*;
 use std::io;
 
 use crossterm::{
-    cursor::{MoveTo, MoveToColumn, SetCursorStyle},
+    cursor::{
+        MoveDown, MoveLeft, MoveRight, MoveTo, MoveToColumn, MoveUp, RestorePosition, SavePosition,
+        SetCursorStyle,
+    },
     execute, queue,
+    style::{Color, SetBackgroundColor, SetForegroundColor},
     terminal::{
         disable_raw_mode, enable_raw_mode, size, Clear, ClearType::All, EnterAlternateScreen,
         LeaveAlternateScreen,
     },
 };
 
-pub struct Screen<T>
+/// state of the user interface
+pub struct Ui<T>
 where
     T: io::Write,
 {
-    pub data: Vec<Vec<char>>,
+    pub presel_color_pair: (Color, Color),
+    pub markup_color_background: Color,
     pub ostream: T,
     pub width: usize,
     pub height: usize,
 }
 
-impl<T> Screen<T>
+impl<T> Ui<T>
 where
     T: io::Write,
 {
+    /// returns a new `Ui` using `ostream` as its' output stream
+    /// and sets up terminal state:
+    /// - remembers the current cursor position
+    /// - enters alternate screen buffer
+    /// - enables raw mode
     pub fn init(ostream: T) -> Self {
         let (width, height) = size().unwrap();
         let (width, height) = (width as usize, height as usize);
 
-        let data = RENDER_TEMPLATE.iter().map(|s| s.to_vec()).collect();
+        let presel_color_pair = (Color::Black, Color::Cyan);
+        let markup_color_background = Color::Cyan;
 
-        let mut screen = Screen {
-            data,
+        let mut ui = Ui {
+            presel_color_pair,
+            markup_color_background,
             ostream,
             width,
             height,
         };
 
-        enable_raw_mode().expect("[-]: Error: ui::init: Failed to enable raw mode.");
-        queue!(screen.ostream, EnterAlternateScreen)
+        queue!(ui.ostream, SavePosition, EnterAlternateScreen, Clear(All))
             .expect("[-]: Error: ui::init: Failed to enter alternate screen.");
-        screen
+        enable_raw_mode().expect("[-]: Error: ui::init: Failed to enable raw mode.");
+        ui
     }
 
-    pub fn deinit(&mut self) {
-        disable_raw_mode().unwrap_or(());
-        execute!(self.ostream, LeaveAlternateScreen).unwrap_or(());
+    /// resets terminal state that `Ui::init()` sets:
+    /// - disables raw mode
+    /// - leaves alternate screen buffer
+    /// - restores cursor position
+    pub fn deinit(&mut self) -> io::Result<()> {
+        disable_raw_mode()?;
+        execute!(self.ostream, LeaveAlternateScreen, RestorePosition)?;
+        Ok(())
     }
 
+    /// updates `width` and `height`.
+    /// clears the screen and redraws the board if the dimensions changed.
+    /// returns an error if the new dimensions are too small to fit the ui.
     pub fn update_dimensions(&mut self) -> io::Result<()> {
+        let old_dimensions = (self.width, self.height);
+
         let (width, height) = size()?;
         self.width = width as usize;
         self.height = height as usize;
 
         if height < 14 || width < 54 {
             self.clear()?;
-            self.deinit();
-            eprintln!("[-]: Error: ui::update_dimensions: Terminal size too small to display UI.");
+            self.deinit()?;
+            eprintln!("[!]: Error: ui::update_dimensions: Terminal size too small to display UI.");
             return Err(io::Error::from(io::ErrorKind::Other));
         }
 
+        if old_dimensions != (self.width, self.height) {
+            self.clear()?;
+            self.draw_static_elements()?;
+        }
+
         Ok(())
     }
 
@@ -68,105 +98,171 @@ where
         queue!(self.ostream, MoveToColumn(0))
     }
 
-    pub fn draw(&mut self, row: usize, col: usize) -> io::Result<()> {
-        self.draw_screen()?;
-        self.draw_cursor(row, col)?;
-        self.ostream.flush()?;
+    /// draws the entire ui, watching for possibly changed screen dimensions.
+    /// all other `draw_...()` functions just `queue!(...)` the actions to draw
+    /// their respective ui element.
+    /// this function chains all of these calls in order and then flushes the
+    /// changes to `self.ostream`.
+    ///
+    /// NOTE: this function does not draw the static elements of the ui
+    ///       using `Ui::draw_static_elements()`. for efficiency these are only
+    ///       redrawn on screen dimensions changes and initialization.
+    pub fn draw(&mut self, state: &State) -> io::Result<()> {
+        self.update_dimensions()?;
+
+        self.draw_numbers(state)?;
+        self.draw_scoreboard(state)?;
+        self.draw_cursor(state)?;
+
+        self.ostream.flush()
+    }
+
+    /// `queue!(...)`s the drawing of the unchanging ui elements
+    /// such as the board and scoreboards outlines.
+    /// uses the lines provided by `board_template()`.
+    ///
+    /// NOTE: this function itself does not flush to `self.ostream`
+    ///       in order to only have to flush once per frame.
+    pub fn draw_static_elements(&mut self) -> io::Result<()> {
+        self.init_cursor_offset()?;
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetForegroundColor(Color::Reset))?;
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetBackgroundColor(Color::Reset))?;
+
+        let board_template = board_template();
+
+        for line in board_template {
+            write!(self.ostream, "{}", line)?;
+            self.move_cursor_by(-41, 1)?;
+        }
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    pub fn draw_screen(&mut self) -> io::Result<()> {
-        self.clear()?;
-        let lft_pad = self.width / 2 - 14;
-        let bot_pad = self.height / 2 - 7;
+    /// `queue!(...)`s the drawing of the numbers in the cells.
+    ///
+    /// NOTE: this function itself does not flush to `self.ostream`
+    ///       in order to only have to flush once per frame.
+    fn draw_numbers(&mut self, state: &State) -> io::Result<()> {
+        self.init_cursor_offset()?;
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetForegroundColor(Color::Reset))?;
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetBackgroundColor(Color::Reset))?;
+        self.move_cursor_by(1, 0)?;
 
-        let mut display = String::with_capacity((43 + lft_pad) * 13 + bot_pad * 2);
-
-        display.extend(self.data.iter().flat_map(|line| {
-            std::iter::repeat(' ')
-                .take(lft_pad)
-                .chain(line.to_owned())
-                .chain(['\r', '\n'])
-        }));
-
-        display.push_str(&"\r\n".repeat(bot_pad));
-
-        write!(self.ostream, "{}", display)?;
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    pub fn render(&mut self, state: &State) {
-        self.render_board();
-        self.render_board_cells(state);
-        self.render_scoreboard_elements(state);
-    }
-
-    fn render_board(&mut self) {
-        self.data = RENDER_TEMPLATE.iter().map(|s| s.to_vec()).collect();
-    }
-
-    fn render_board_cells(&mut self, state: &State) {
         for row in 0..9 {
+            match row {
+                3 | 6 => self.move_cursor_by(0, 2),
+                _ => self.move_cursor_by(0, 1),
+            }?;
+
             for col in 0..9 {
-                let i = row + 1 + row / 3;
-                let j = col + 2 + col + col / 3 * 3;
+                match col {
+                    3 | 6 => self.move_cursor_by(4, 0),
+                    _ => self.move_cursor_by(1, 0),
+                }?;
 
-                self.data[i][j] = match state.board[row][col] {
-                    0 => ' ',
-                    x => (x + b'0') as char,
-                }
+                let chr = match state.board[row][col] {
+                    x if x == state.preselection => {
+                        queue!(
+                            self.ostream,
+                            SetForegroundColor(self.presel_color_pair.0),
+                            SetBackgroundColor(self.presel_color_pair.1)
+                        )
+                        .unwrap_or(());
+                        (x + b'0') as char
+                    }
+                    0 => {
+                        match state.markups[row][col][state.preselection as usize - 1] {
+                            true => {
+                                queue!(
+                                    self.ostream,
+                                    SetBackgroundColor(self.markup_color_background)
+                                )?;
+                            }
+                            false => {
+                                queue!(
+                                    self.ostream,
+                                    SetForegroundColor(Color::Reset),
+                                    SetBackgroundColor(Color::Reset)
+                                )?;
+                            }
+                        }
+                        ' '
+                    }
+                    x => {
+                        queue!(self.ostream, SetForegroundColor(Color::Reset)).unwrap_or(());
+                        queue!(self.ostream, SetBackgroundColor(Color::Reset)).unwrap_or(());
+                        (x + b'0') as char
+                    }
+                };
+                write!(self.ostream, "{}", chr)?;
             }
+
+            self.move_cursor_by(-24, 0)?;
         }
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn render_scoreboard_elements(&mut self, state: &State) {
-        // char indeces of scoreboard elements
-        // -----
-        //
-        // difficulty [1][34] - [1][38]
-        // completion [2][34] - [1][35]
-        //
-        // timer [4][34] - [3][38]
-        //
-        // > edit:   [6][33]
-        // > markup: [7][33]
-        // > go:     [8][33]
-        //
-        // preselection: [10][36]
-        // preselection completion: [11][34]
+    /// `queue!(...)`s the drawing of variable scoreboard content
+    ///
+    /// NOTE: this function itself does not flush to `self.ostream`
+    ///       in order to only have to flush once per frame.
+    fn draw_scoreboard(&mut self, state: &State) -> io::Result<()> {
+        self.init_cursor_offset()?;
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetForegroundColor(Color::Reset))?;
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetBackgroundColor(Color::Reset))?;
 
-        for (i, c) in (34..39).zip(state.get_difficulty_chars()) {
-            self.data[1][i] = c;
+        self.move_cursor_by(34, 1)?;
+        write!(self.ostream, "{}", state.get_difficulty_string())?;
+
+        self.move_cursor_by(-5, 1)?;
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetForegroundColor(self.presel_color_pair.1))?;
+        write!(self.ostream, "{}", state.get_completion_string())?;
+
+        self.move_cursor_by(-2, 2)?;
+        let (mins_string, secs_string) = state.get_timer_strings();
+        write!(self.ostream, "{}", mins_string)?;
+        self.move_cursor_by(1, 0)?;
+        write!(self.ostream, "{}", secs_string)?;
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetForegroundColor(Color::Reset))?;
+
+        self.move_cursor_by(-6, 2)?;
+        for _ in 0..3 {
+            write!(self.ostream, " ")?;
+            self.move_cursor_by(-1, 1)?;
         }
 
-        for (i, c) in (34..36).zip(state.get_completion_chars()) {
-            self.data[2][i] = c;
+        self.move_cursor_by(0, -3)?;
+
+        let selected_mode_idx = match state.mode {
+            Mode::Edit => 0,
+            Mode::Markup => 1,
+            Mode::Go => 2,
+        };
+
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetForegroundColor(self.presel_color_pair.1))?;
+        for i in 0..3 {
+            if i == selected_mode_idx {
+                write!(self.ostream, ">")?;
+            }
+            self.move_cursor_by(0, 1)?;
         }
 
-        for (i, c) in (34..39).zip(state.get_timer_chars()) {
-            self.data[4][i] = c;
-        }
+        self.move_cursor_by(2, 1)?;
+        write!(self.ostream, "{}", (state.preselection + b'0') as char)?;
 
-        for i in 6..9 {
-            self.data[i][33] = ' ';
-        }
+        self.move_cursor_by(-3, 1)?;
+        write!(self.ostream, "{}", state.get_preselection_completion_char())?;
 
-        self.data[match state.mode {
-            Mode::Edit => 6,
-            Mode::Markup => 7,
-            Mode::Go => 8,
-        }][33] = '>';
-
-        self.data[10][36] = (state.preselection + b'0') as char;
-
-        self.data[11][34] = state.get_preselection_completion_char();
+        queue!(self.ostream, SetForegroundColor(Color::Reset))?;
+        Ok(())
     }
 
-    pub fn draw_cursor(&mut self, row: usize, col: usize) -> io::Result<()> {
-        let (x, y) = (
-            (self.width / 2 - 14) as u16,
-            (self.height / 2 - 7 + (self.height & 1)) as u16,
-        );
+    /// `queue!(...)`s the placement of the cursor on the selected cell.
+    ///
+    /// NOTE: this function itself does not flush to `self.ostream`
+    ///       in order to only have to flush once per frame.
+    fn draw_cursor(&mut self, state: &State) -> io::Result<()> {
+        let (row, col) = (state.cur_row, state.cur_col);
+        let (x, y) = ((self.width / 2 - 14) as u16, (self.height / 2 - 6) as u16);
         let (x, y) = (x + 2, y + 1);
         let (x, y) = (x + 2 * col as u16, y + row as u16);
         let x = match col {
@@ -181,72 +277,70 @@ where
         };
         queue!(self.ostream, MoveTo(x, y), SetCursorStyle::SteadyBlock)
     }
+
+    /// `queue!(...)`s the movement of the cursor by (`x`, `y`).
+    /// positive `x` values correspond to movement right by `x` columns.
+    /// positive `y` values correspond to movement down by `y` rows.
+    ///
+    /// NOTE: this function itself does not flush to `self.ostream`
+    ///       in order to only have to flush once per frame.
+    fn move_cursor_by(&mut self, x: isize, y: isize) -> io::Result<()> {
+        match x.cmp(&0) {
+            Equal => Ok(()),
+            Less => queue!(self.ostream, MoveLeft(-x as u16)),
+            Greater => queue!(self.ostream, MoveRight(x as u16)),
+        }?;
+        match y.cmp(&0) {
+            Equal => Ok(()),
+            Less => queue!(self.ostream, MoveUp(-y as u16)),
+            Greater => queue!(self.ostream, MoveDown(y as u16)),
+        }?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// `queue!(...)`s the movement of the cursor to the top-left
+    /// of the inner ui.
+    /// this simplifies handling the padding in other drawing functions
+    /// since the padding depends on the screen dimensions.
+    fn init_cursor_offset(&mut self) -> io::Result<()> {
+        let lft_pad = (self.width / 2 - 14) as u16;
+        let top_pad = (self.height / 2 - 6) as u16;
+        queue!(self.ostream, MoveTo(lft_pad, top_pad))
+    }
 }
 
-const RENDER_TEMPLATE: [[char; 41]; 13] = [
+/// returns a template for the parts of the board that
+/// are always the same.
+fn board_template() -> [String; 13] {
     [
-        '┌', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '┬', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─',
-        '┬', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '┐', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '┌', '─', '─', '─',
-        '─', '─', '─', '─', '┐',
-    ],
-    [
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│',
-    ],
-    [
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '/', '8', '1', ' ', '│',
-    ],
-    [
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '├', '─', '─', '─',
-        '─', '─', '─', '─', '┤',
-    ],
-    [
-        '├', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '┼', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─',
-        '┼', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '┤', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│',
-    ],
-    [
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '├', '─', '─', '─',
-        '─', '─', '─', '─', '┤',
-    ],
-    [
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', 'E',
-        'd', 'i', 't', ' ', '│',
-    ],
-    [
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', 'M',
-        'a', 'r', 'k', ' ', '│',
-    ],
-    [
-        '├', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '┼', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─',
-        '┼', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '┤', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', 'G',
-        'o', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│',
-    ],
-    [
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '├', '─', '─', '─',
-        '─', '─', '─', '─', '┤',
-    ],
-    [
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', '[',
-        ' ', ']', ' ', ' ', '│',
-    ],
-    [
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '│', ' ', ' ', ' ',
-        '/', ' ', '9', ' ', '│',
-    ],
-    [
-        '└', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '┴', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─',
-        '┴', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '─', '┘', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', '└', '─', '─', '─',
-        '─', '─', '─', '─', '┘',
-    ],
-];
+        String::from("┌────────┬────────┬────────┐    ┌───────┐"),
+        String::from("│        │        │        │    │       │"),
+        String::from("│        │        │        │    │   /81 │"),
+        String::from("│        │        │        │    ├───────┤"),
+        String::from("├────────┼────────┼────────┤    │   :   │"),
+        String::from("│        │        │        │    ├───────┤"),
+        String::from("│        │        │        │    │  Edit │"),
+        String::from("│        │        │        │    │  Mark │"),
+        String::from("├────────┼────────┼────────┤    │  Go   │"),
+        String::from("│        │        │        │    ├───────┤"),
+        String::from("│        │        │        │    │  [ ]  │"),
+        String::from("│        │        │        │    │   / 9 │"),
+        String::from("└────────┴────────┴────────┘    └───────┘"),
+    ]
+}
+
+pub trait UiCrash {
+    fn or_crash(&self);
+}
+
+impl<T> UiCrash for io::Result<T> {
+    /// ends the process with exit code 1
+    /// if called on `Err(_)` variant.
+    /// if called on `Ok(_)` variant, this is a no-op
+    /// that discards the contained value.
+    fn or_crash(&self) {
+        if self.is_err() {
+            std::process::exit(1);
+        }
+    }
+}